STUDY
       2017
     FORESTS ABLAZE 
      Causes and effects of global forest fires
     Title page: 15-20 % of global annual carbon emissions are from forest destruction (especially fire 
     clearance) and degradation. The title page shows east Sumatra with fire sources (outlined in red) and 
     immense substance release (tornado-like smoke plumes)
     IMPRINT
     Editor  WWF Deutschland, Berlin
     Published  October 2016
     Author  Peter Hirschberger, 4con forestconsulting, www.forestconsulting.de
     Contact  susanne.winter@wwf.de, yougha.vonlaer@wwf.de
     Coordination/Editing  Dr. Susanne Winter, Yougha von Laer, Thomas Köberich (all WWF) 
     Design  Thomas Schlembach (WWF)
     Photograph credits  NASA Earth Observatory/Adam Voiland (Cover), Thinkstock/ivandan, Thinkstock/ 
     olgalngs, WWF-Canon/Nigel Dickinson, Thinkstock/Hemera, WWF-Canon/Tantyo BANGUN,  
     WWF-Canon/Matthew Lee, Thinkstock/Brian Maudsley, Thinkstock/Nuno André Ferreira, WWF,  
     Thinkstock/KenRinger, Thinkstock/rep0rter, Thinkstock/Ingram Publishing, Heike Wiedenhoeft,  
     G. harold/Auscape/SAVE-OKAPIA, Thinkstock/JohnCarnemolla, WWF/Valerii Maleev,  
     WWF/Sabine Vielmo, © WWF/Brent STIRTON, WWF/Adriano Gambarini, WWF/Adventus Panda,  
     Ch‘ien C. Lee, WWF/Susanne WinterExecutive Summary 2
                    Executive Summary                                                                                    5
                    1       Introduction 12
                    2       The ecological role of fire 13
                    2.1     Fire-dependent ecosystems 13
                    2.2     Fire-sensitive ecosystems 13
                    2.3     Altered fire regimes 15
                    2.4     El Niño 17
                    2.5     Forest fires and climate change 17
                    3       Development and suppression of forest fires 19
                    3.1     Wildfire suppression 19
                    3.2     The problem of water supply 19
                    4       Forest fires by region 21
                    4.1     Mediterranean region 21
                    4.1.1   Current situation and forest fires of recent years in Mediterranean countries 21
                    4.1.2   Causes 28
                    4.1.3   Effects 35
                    4.1.4   Solutions 39
                    4.2     North America 41
                    4.2.1   USA 41
                    4.2.2   Canada 45
                    4.3     Germany 49
                    4.4     Australia 57
                    4.4.1   Forest fire disasters of this century 59
                    4.4.2   Causes 60
                    4.4.3   Effects 61
                    4.4.4   Solutions 63
                    4.5     Russia 64
                    4.5.1   Current situation and the forest fire disasters of this century 6
                    4.5.2   Causes 66
                    4.5.3   Effects 67
                    4.5.4   Solutions 69
                    4.6     Amazon 71
                    4.6.1   Current situation and the forest fire disasters of this century 72
                    4.6.2   Causes 75
                    4.6.3   Effects 78
                    4.6.4   Solutions 80
                    4.7     Indonesia/ Southeast Asia 83
                    4.7.1   Current situation 83
                    4.7.2   Causes 84
                    4.7.3   Effects 87
                    4.7.4   Solutions 89
                    5       Recommendations 93
                    Sources                                                                                            96
       Fires release immense quantities of carbon stored in tree populations and soils. 
                                                                                                                   Forests ablaze Causes and effects of global forest fires | 5